Though
documentary evidence in favour of the identification
of the Maurya headquarters of Tosali with Sisupalgarh
is wanting, the possibility of the identification cannot
be ruled out in view of the latter containing antiquities
that go back to the Maurya age.
Ancient Kalinga
Stronger evidence exists for Sisuupalgarh being the
site of 'Kalinga-nagara', the capital of the 'Chedi'
kings of the Mahameghavahana family (second-first century
B.C.), during whose time Kalinga was again an independent
kingdom, free from the yoke of Magadha. The Hathi-gumpha
inscription in the Udayagiri hill, 10-km northwest of
Sisupalgarh of Kharavela (1st century B.C.) of this
dynasty, while furnishing details of his eventful career,
credits him with the repairs to the gates, walls and
houses of the capital devastated by a cyclone.
Now there is no fortified town of the
period other than Sisupalgarh in the neighourhood of
the Udayagiri hill. Further, the excavation at Sisupalgarh
actually revealed a collapse of and subsequent repairs
to its western gateway.
Influence Of Jainism
Kharavela was a powerful ruler and launched Kalinga
on a career of conquest. He espoused the cause of Jainism,
which was the established religion in Kalinga even before
the rise of the Mauryas, and brought back a Jain cult-object
long taken away by the 'Nandas', the immediate predecessors
of the Mauryas. Thus, under the royal patronage of the
Chedis the Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills became a strong
Jaina centre.
Though Buddhism declined in Bhubaneswar
with the growing influence of the Saiva Pasupata sect,
Jainism maintained its hold on these two hills even
in the days of the Bhuama-Kara and Somavamsi kings as
attested by the inscribed records thereon.
The history of Bhubaneswar following Kharavela
and preceding the rise of the 'Sailodbhavas' in about
the seventh century A.D. is extremely obscure. Fortunately,
it is not so obscure in the field of archaeology. As
already noted, Sisupalgarh continued to be in occupation
till the middle of the fourth century A.D. the finds
from the site include the Kushana and imitation Kushana
coins, clay 'bullae' imitating Roman coins and a unique
gold piece having on the obverse a late Kushana motif
with legends in characters of the 3rd century A.D. and
on the reverse a Roman head with a Roman legend.
Roman contacts of Sisupalgarh are thus
unmistakable. To the early centuries of the Christian
era also belong a few heavy 'Yaksha' and 'Naga' statues,
specimens of which are exhibited in the Orissa State
Museum. One life-sized pot-bellied Naga and two 'Nagi'
sculptures can be seen under worship in the village
of Kapilprasad, 3 ¼-km. South of Bhubaneswar.
Standing against serpent-coils with a
five-hooded canopy above their heads and decked in heavy
ornaments, these freestanding statues, representing
folk-divinities, share with other similar figures from
different parts of north India crude and primitive characteristics.
Though one cannot definitely assign any
temple of Bhubaneswar to the Gupta age, which saw the
emergence of the characteristics of India temple-types,
as there exists no specimen of the initial formative
stage, still faltering due to an insufficient technique,
a few architectural fragments and sculptures- the latter
mostly hieratic divinities like Uma-Mahesvara, Kartikeya,
Ganesa and Parvati- recall the Gupta art-idiom. These
pieces can sometimes be seen lying in the compounds
of temples and more often re-utilized in later temples.
But it is difficult to be certain about their date in
view of the persistence, in Orissa, of the Gupta art-idiom
even in the post-Gupta period.
Yet, the sporadic finds of these detached
sculptures and architectural pieces are inadequate to
bridge the gulf of six centuries following the Chedi
supremacy. When the pall of obscurity is lifted, the
land fell under the spell of Saivism. Its architects
had given a distinct turn to the form of the temples
as evolved during the Gupta age and were already on
the way towards developing the north Indian temple-type
known as "Nagara" in the 'Silpa-Sastras' or
canonical texts on architecture, along their own lines-
investing it with such distinctive peculiarities as
ultimately won for it a separate recognition under the
name of the Kalinga Order. Henceforward, art and architecture
with a few exceptions were at the absolute service of
Saiva and Sakta cults till the ingress of Vaishnavism
in the 13th century A.D.
Though there may be some truth in the
tradition recorded in Sanskrit texts like the Ekamra-Purana
that the Gauda king sasanka, a staunch devotee of Siva,
sho, according to epigraphical sources, conquered parts
of Orissa including Kongoda in the first quarter of
the 7th century A.D., built the first quarter of the
7th century A.D., built the first Saiva temple at the
site of Tribhuvanesvara, the particular sect which brought
about transformation in the religion of the people and
gave an impetus to temple-building was the Pasupata
sect, of which Lakulisa, a Saiva teacher, was the organizer.
The earlier temples of Bhubaneswar teem with the representations
of this deified teacher.
By the 5th century A.D. the sect seems
to have established itself in the Bhubaneswar region.
The religion it had to combat was Buddhism, which seems
to have been the prevailing faith at Bhubaneswar when
it came to the scene. This accounts for the great resemblance
of the figure of Lakulisa with that of Buddha: but for
the lakuta (staff) the former would easily be identified
with the latter.
The earliest group of the extant temples,
of which the Parasuramesvara temple is the best preserved,
was most probably built during the rule of the Sailodbhavas
who, in the first quarter of the 7th century A.D., were
feudatories to the Gauda king Sasanka, but soon after
A.D. 619, the date of the Ganjam plates of Sasanka,
declared independence under Madhavaraja II.
Though no temple bears any inscription
dated in the reign of any of the Bhauma-Kara rulers
who followed the Sailodbhavas, it is clear from the
extant temples that the temple-building activity continued
unabated during their long rule. The Bhauma-Karas were
succeeded by the Somavamsis.
The building activity was in full swing
also under the Gangas, who brought an end to the rule
of the Somavamsis in about the beginning of the 12th
twelfth century. One of the inscriptions on a wall of
the jagamahana of the Lingaraja temple records the grant
by the Ganga king Anantvarman Chodaganga (A.D. 1078-1150)
of a village for the maintenance of a lamp in the temple
of Krittivasas (original name of Lingaraja) in A.D.
1114-15, presupposing thereby not only the existence
of the Lingaraja temple but Chodaganga's conquest of
Bhubaneswar before that date.
Vaishnavism
The impact of Vaishnavism, which rose to prominence
during the Ganga supremacy, left its imprint not only
on the second temple, the only important Vaishnava temple
at Bhubaneswar, but also on the personification of the
presiding deity of the Lingaraja temple as the combined
manifestation of Hari and Hara. That Saivism had to
compromise with Vaishnavism is also apparent in the
introduction of a number of Vaishnavaq rites in the
worship of Lingaraja. Further, a figure of Garuda found
place by the side of the bull on the votive column in
front of the bhoga-mandapa of the temple.
The rule of the Suryavamsi Gajapatis,
who supplanted the Gangas in the 15th century A.D.,
is one of retrogression in the sphere of art and architecture
at Bhubaneswar. The southern side of the ruined porch
leading to the 'Kapali-Matha' by the side of the 'Papanasini
tank' has a panel of elephant-riders with an inscribed
label mentioning the commander-in-chief of Kapilendra
(circa a.D. 1435-70), the founder of the Gajapati dynasty.
It is likely that some temples like the Varunesvara
on the bank of the Papanasini tank were built during
the reign of the Gajapatis. These temples, together
with the porch in question, are devoid of any artistic
merit.
Bindu-Sarovara Tank
It is said that Lord Shiva established this tank as
a place of pilgrimage by bringing water from all the
holy places. Taking bath here and drinking the water
of this lake is said to cure any disease of the stomach.
Lord Chaitanya took bath in this lake when He first
came from Bengal to Puri. It is located right next to
the Lingaraja Temple. A pilgrimage to Bhubaneswar is
supposed to start with a bath here. On the eastern bank
is the 'Ananta Vasudeva' temple, which is dedicated
to Krishna and Balarama.
The Lingaraja deity is brought to the
pavilion in the middle of the tank and ritually bathed
during the annual Car festival ('Ashokastami'). The
best time to come here is around sunrise.
Lingaraja Temple
(11th century)
The Lingaraja temple dominates the skyline of Bhubaneswar
from as far away as 15-kms and exhibits the skill of
the Orissan temple architects at its completely mature
and developed stage. This temple was constructed in
the 11th Century AD at the site of an old 7th Century
Shrine. Along with the 'deul' and the 'Jagmohana' the
Lingaraja temple has two new structures, the 'Nata Mandira'
(dance hall) and the ' Bhoga Mandapa' (offering hall).
Dedicated to Lord Shiva the 'Lingam' here is unique
in that it is a 'Hari Hara' lingam - half Siva and Half
Vishnu. There are around 150 subsidiary shrines within
this giant temple.
Muktesvara Temple
Often referred to as the 'Gem of Orissan Architecture'
this temple has been built on the lines of the Kalinga
School of temple architecture. This temple too is a
deviation in that the architects have blended old and
new techniques of planning and execution. Many new innovations
in later temples are from here. A 'Torana', an arched
gateway is a unique feature of this temple.
The temple dedicated Lord Shiva-Mukteswara,
is carved with figures of ascetics in various poses
of meditation and scenes from the storehouse of Indian
fables, the 'Panchatantra'. A dip in a sacred well to
the east of the temple is supposedly a cure for infertility.
Parasurameswara Temple
Parasurameswara Temple built in 650 AD is one of the
few earliest temples of Bhubaneswar. This temple built
in the 'Kalinga' style of temple architecture was dedicated
to Lord Siva but there are images of Lord Vishnu, 'Yama',
'Surya' and seven Mother Goddesses. In typical fashion,
it is liberally sculpted with amorous couples, animals
and floral motifs.
Just south of Parasurameswara temple is
the 'Swaranajaleswara' temple is the 'Swaranajaleswara'
temple. Built in a similar style, the motifs on the
walls however differ, depicting scenes from the 'Ramayana'.
Raj Rani Temple
The Raja Rani temple is an essay in grace and poise
and is particularly interesting in that it has no presiding
deity. The name of this temple is supposed to be derived
from the red-gold sandstone used - Raja Rani being the
local name for the stone. The 'deul' is intricately
carved with figurines in various stages of daily chores.
The lower portion of the deul has the 'Gurdians of the
eight directions' guarding the eight cardinal points
of the temple.
Brahmeshwara Temple
Brahmeswara temple depicts the mature Orissan style
of temple architecture. The 'deul' and the 'Jagmohana'
are both intricately carved and for the first time in
temple architectural history musicians and dancers appear
on the outer walls and iron beams find their first use.
In the western section 'Chamunda', Shiva and other deities
are depicted.
Vaital Deul Temple
Vaital Deul is the Shrine of 'Chamunda' or 'Shakti'.
Seated on a corpse in a dark inner sanctum is the Goddess
Chamunda, garland of skulls round her neck and flanked
by a jackal and an owl. The niches on the inner wall
depict equally startling images along with scenes of
tantric rituals. It is the first of the temples to depict
erotic sculptures, it is also unique in that the outer
surface of the vault is plain while profusely embellished
on the inside.
Mohini Temple
Standing to a height of about 9.45m. On the south-bank
of Bindu-Sarovara, it is, in its architectural features,
a close analogue to the Parasuramesvara temple . Its
carvings, however, were left unfinished. The damaged
jagamohana has been restored recently. All the images
of Parsva-Devatas- Parvati, Kartikeya and Ganesa- are
in site.
On the body of the deul are incised a
few short records. Inside the sanctum is a ten-armed
dancing icon of Chamunda, terrific to behold. On the
floor of the jagamohana lies a six-armed image of 'Mahishasuramardini'.
Its original 'Garbha-Muda' above the present wooden
ceiling is distinguished by a carved lotus on the topmost
stone capping the corbels. There is at least one more
chamber over the Garbha-Muda.
Uttaresvara Temple
This temple, on the north bank of Bindu-Sarovara, consisting
of the deul and jagamohana of the Parasuramesvara type,
has its superstructure above the first 'Bhumi-Amla'
plastered in the course of repairs and restorations.
Of the images of Parsva-Devatas, Kartikeya presents
an interesting variation. Noted for the plasticity of
modelling, the deity stands without his mount, holding
in his left hand a long spear, his right hand akimbo.
Gauri-Sankara-Ganesa
Temple
By the side of the main road, a few metres to the north
of the Lingaraja temple , is the Gauri-Sankara-Ganesa
shrine, half-buried under the age-long accumulation
of debris, raising the road-level nearly to the height
of its bada. A narrow flight of steps gives access to
the temple, which consists of the deul only.
As in the case of the Mohini temple, its
carvings were left incomplete. The crowning member,
consisting of a cylindrical object, octagonal below
and round above, over the 'Khapuri' is partially preserved,
and we have here three 'Bhumi-Varandis' instead of the
usual four.
Paschimesvara Temple
Also closely affiliated with the Parasuramesvara group
are the Paschimesvara temple and a half-buried shrine
within the enclosure of the 'Yamesvara' temple. The
first, a tiny shrine, which has been regarded by some
scholars as one of the earliest, was most unfortunately
demolished several years back, and only its plinth and
images of Parsva-Devatas-
(i) A four-armed standing figure of Parvati
holding a vase, a crooked staff, a rosary and a lotus
and with her mount lion on the left.
(ii) A two-armed figure of Kartikeya remarkable for
his "Sikhandaka-Kakapaksha" hairstyle, seated
on his peacock and holding a spear in his left hand
and a 'Matulunga' in his right.
(iii) A four-armed figure of Ganesa with his raised
knee and pot-belly tied by a snake, seated on a throne
supported by a dwarf and holding a bowl of 'laddukas',
a hatchet, a rosary and a radish-can now be seen right
on the south-west corner of Bindu-Sarovara.
Kedaresvara Temple
Facing the south, this temple is architecturally akin
to the Siddhesvara temple and, like it, has a thick
- set heavy-shouldered gandi betraying an immaturity.
Its Bhumi-Amlas are, however, rectangular. The recesses
between the projections of the bada are occupied by
female figures or erotic couples in the upper jangha
and vidalas in the lower jangha. Of the images of the
Parsva-Devatas, the four-armed Kartikeya, with his two
left hands touching a cock, and Ganesa also four-armed,
are in situ. The 'mustaka' of the jagamohana contains
all the usual elements.
The right wall of the entrance of the
jagamohana contains an inscription recording the donation
of a perpetual lamp in front of the lord 'Kedaresvara'
by Raja Pramadi, the younger brother of the Ganga king
'Anantavarman Chodaganga', in A.D. 1142, thus providing
the existence of the temple before that date.
Bhaskaresvara Temple
Devoid of any artistic or architectural merit, this
temple has hardly any place in the development of temple-structure
and is rather a negation of the principles of the rational
architectural evolution at Bhubaneswar. Its peculiar
form was dictated by the height of the enshrined linga,
which was originally a freestanding pillar.
To enable the devotees to reach the top
of the linga and to perform ritualistic worship, the
bada is built in two tiers: the upper tier, approachable
by a flight of steps against the northern wall of the
lower tier, is pierced with a door on the west side;
the lower one looks like a platform and is provided
with four door-ways, one on each side, leading to the
floor of the sanctum.
Both the tiers are 'Pancha-Ratha' on plan
and have five-fold divisions. The low superstructure,
singularly disproportionate, is made of nine 'Pidhas'
and is crowned by a succession of 'Beki', 'Amla', 'Khapuri'
and 'Kalasa'. The images of the 'Parsva-Devatas' in
the niches of the upper bada are intact.
Orissa State Museum
This museum has a collection of religious sculptures,
weapons, coins, and musical instruments. It also has
a good collection of antique paintings and palm leaf
manuscripts in a small room at the end of the corridor
on the first floor.
It is located at the top of Gautam
Nagar (Lewis Road), not far from the hotel Ashok and
is open from Tuesday to Sunday, 10am to 1.30pm and 2.30
to 5pm.
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